1 Jones KL, Smith DW, Ulleland CN, Streissguth AP.
Pattern of malformation in offspring of chronic alcoholic
mothers. Lancet 1973;301:1267–71.
2 Gray R, Henderson J. Report to the Department of Health:
Review of the Fetal Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure. 75
University of Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology
Unit, 2006.
3 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Alcohol
Consumption and the Outcomes of Pregnancy (RCOG Statement,
No.5). London: Royal College of Obstetricians and 80
Gynaecologists, 2006.
4 HM Government. Safe. Sensible. Sociable. The Next Steps in
the National Alcohol Strategy. London: Crown copyright,
2007.
5 85 NICE Clinical Guideline 62. Antenatal Care: Routine
Care for the Healthy Pregnant Woman (2008 update).
Available at: www.nice.org.uk/CG062fullguideline
(accessed 25 July 2008).
6 Jones KL, Chambers CD, Hill LL, Hull AD, Riley EP.
Alcohol use in pregnancy: inadequate recommendations 90
for an increasing problem. BJOG 2006;113:967–68.
7 Mukherjee RAS, Hollins S, Abou-Saleh MT. Low level
alcohol consumption and the fetus. Abstinence from
alcohol is the only safe message in pregnancy. Br Med J
2005;330:375–76. 95
8 Sayal K, Heron J, Golding J, Emond A. Prenatal alcohol
exposure and gender differences in childhood mental
health problems: a longitudinal population-based study.
Pediatrics 2007;119:e426–34.
9 100 Sood B, Delaney-Black V, Covington C et al. Prenatal
alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7
years: I. Dose-response effect. Pediatrics 2001;108:1–9.
10 Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL, Sokol RJ, Chiodo LM.
Preliminary evidence of primary socioemotional deficits
in 7-year-olds prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcohol Clin 105
Exp Res 1998;22:61A.
11 Linnet KM, Dalsgaard S, Obel C et al. Maternal lifestyle
factors in pregnancy risk of attention deficit hyperactivity
10 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
disorder and associated behaviors: review of the current
evidence. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1028–40.
12 O’Connor TG, Heron J, Golding J, Beveridge M, Glover V.
Maternal antenatal anxiety and children’s behavioural/
5 emotional problems at 4 years. Report from the Avon
Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Br J
Psychiatry 2002;180:502–8.
13 D’Onofrio BM, Van Hulle CA, Waldman ID, Rodgers JL,
Rathouz PJ, Lahey BB. Causal inferences regarding
10 prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalising
problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:1296–304.
14 O’Callaghan FV, O’Callaghan M, Najman JM, Williams GM,
Bor W. Prenatal alcohol exposure and attention, learning
and intellectual ability at 14 years: a prospective long-
15 itudinal study. Early Hum Dev 2007;83:115–23.
15 Forrest F, Florey C du V, Taylor D, McPherson F,
Young JA. Reported social alcohol consumption during
pregnancy and infants’ development at 18 months. Br
Med J 1991;303:22–26.
20 16 Olsen J. Effects of moderate alcohol consumption during
pregnancy on child development at 18 and 42 months.
Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1994;18:1109–13.
17 Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. Drinking moderately and
pregnancy. Effects on child development. Alcohol Res
25 Health 1999;23:25–30.
18 Fried PA, Watkinson MA. 36- and 48-month neurobehavioral
follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana,
cigarettes, and alcohol. J Dev Behav Pediatr
1990;11:49–58.
30 19 Fried PA, O’Connell CM, Watkinson MA. 60- and
72-month follow-up of children prenatally exposed to
marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol: cognitive and language
assessment. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1992;13:383–91.
20 Streissguth AP, Barr HM, Sampson PD, Darby BL,
35 Martin CM. IQ at age 4 in relation to maternal alcohol use
and smoking during pregnancy. Dev Psychol 1989;25:3–11.
21 Streissguth AP, Barr HM, Sampson PD. Moderate
prenatal alcohol exposure: effects on child IQ and
learning problems at age 7½ years. Alcohol Clin Exp Res
40 1990;14:662–69.
22 Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW, Sokol RJ, Ager JW. Relation
of maternal age and pattern of pregnancy drinking to
functionally significant cognitive deficit in infancy. Alcohol
Clin Exp Res 1998;22:345–51.
45 23 Testa M, Quigley BM, Eiden RD. The effects of prenatal
alcohol exposure on infant mental development: a metaanalytical
review. Alcohol Alcohol 2003;38:295–304.
24 Parry GJ, Ogston SA. EUROMAC. A European concerted
action: maternal alcohol consumption and its relation to
50 the outcome of pregnancy and child development at 18
months. Results – child development at age 18 months.
Int J Epidemiol 1992;21:S72–78.
25 Mattson SN, Schoenfelt AM, Riley EP. Teratogenic effects
of alcohol on brain and behavior. Alcohol Res Health
55 2001;25:185–91.
26 Rouse C, Brooks-Gunn J, McLanahan S. School readiness:
closing racial and ethnic gaps. Introducing the issue.
Future Child 2005;15:5–14.
27 Spira EG, Fischel JE. The impact of preschool inattention,
60 hyperactivity, and impulsivity on social and academic
development: a review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005;
46:755–73.
28 Pihlakoski L, Sourander A, Aromaa M, Rautava P,
Helenius H, Sillanpaa M. The continuity of psychopathology
from early childhood to preadolescence. A prospective 65
cohort study of 3-12-year-old children. Eur Child Adolesc
Psychiatry 2006;15:409–17.
29 Dex S, Joshi H. Children of the 21st Century: From Birth to 9
months. Bristol: The Policy Press, 2005.
30 70 Goodman R. The strengths and difficulties questionnaire:
a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1997;38:581–86.
31 Goodman R. Psychometric properties of the strengths and
difficulties questionnaire. J Am Acad Adolesc Psychiatry
2001;40:1337–45.
32 75 Elliott CD, Smith P, McCulloch K. British Ability Scales
Second Edition (BAS II): Administration and Scoring Manual.
London: NFER-Nelson, 1996.
33 Bracken B. Bracken School Readiness Assessment,
Administrators Manual. The Psychological Corporation:
Hardcourt Assessment Company, 2002. 80
34 Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe LJ et al. Short screening scales
to monitor population prevalences and trends in nonspecific
psychological distress. Psychol Med 2002;32:959–76.
35 Pianta RC. Parent-Child Relationship Scale. Charlottesville,
VA: University of Virginia, 1992. 85
36 George A, Hansen K, Schoon I. Child behaviour and
cognitive development. In: Hansen K, Joshi H (eds).
Millennium Cohort Study Second Survey: A User’s Guide to
Initial Findings. London: Centre for Longitudinal Studies,
University of London, 2007. 90
37 Panico L, Kelly Y; on behalf of the ETHINC team. Ethnic
differences in childhood cognitive development: findings
from the Millennium Cohort Study. J Epidemiol
Community Health 2007;61 (Suppl 1):A36.
38 95 Stockwell T, Donath S, Cooper-Stanbury M, Chikritzhs T,
Catalano P, Mateo C. Under-reporting of alcohol consumption
in household surveys: a comparison of quantity-
frequency, graduated-frequency and recent recall.
Addiction 2004;99:1024–33.
39 100 Corti B, Binns CW, Howat PA, Blaze-Temple D, Lo SK.
Comparison of 7-day retrospective alcohol consumption
diaries in a female population in Perth, Western Australiamethodological
issues. Br J Addict 1990;85:379–88.
40 Jacobson SW, Chiodo LM, Sokol RJ, Jacobson JL. Validity
of maternal report of prenatal alcohol, cocaine, and 105
smoking in relation to neurobehavioral outcome. Pediatrics
2002;109:815–25.
41 Alvik A, Haldorsen T, Groholt B, Lindemann R. Alcohol
consumption before and during pregnancy comparing
concurrent and retrospective reports. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 110
2006;30:510–15.
42 Bolling K, Grant C, Hamlyn B, Thornton A. Infant Feeding
Survey 2005. London: The Information Centre, 2007.
43 Autti-Ra¨mo¨ I. Foetal alcohol syndrome – a multifaceted
condition. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002;44:141–44. 115
44 Goodman R, Ford T, Simmons H, Gatward R, Meltzer H.
Using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)
to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a community
sample. Br J Psychiatry 2000;177:534–39.
45 120 Egger HL, Angold A. Common emotional and behavioral
disorders in preschool children: presentation, nosology, and
epidemiology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2006;47:313–37.
46 Hepper PG, Dornan JC, Little JF. Maternal alcohol
consumption during pregnancy may delay the
LIGHT DRINKING IN PREGNANCY 11
development of spontaneous fetal startle behaviour.
Physiol Behav 2005;83:711–14.
47 Fergusson D, Woodward L, Horwood J. Maternal smoking
during pregnancy and psychiatric adjustment in late
5 adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:721–27.
48 Weissman MM, Warner V, Wickramaratne PJ,
Kandel DB. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and
psychopathology in offspring followed to adulthood. J Am
Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999;38:892–99.
10 49 Cummings EM, Davies PT. Effects of marital conflict on
children: recent advances and emerging themes in
process-oriented research. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2002;
43:31–63.
50 Day NL, Zuo Y, Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Larkby CA,
15 Cornelius M. Prenatal alcohol use and offspring size at 10
years of age. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999;23:863–69.