Acs, Z.J., Audretsch, D.B., 1989. Patents as a measure of innovative
activity. Kyklos 42 (2), 171–180. Ahuja, G., Lampert, C.M., 2001. Entrepreneurship in the large corporation:
a longitudinal study of how established firms create breakthrough
inventions. Strategic Management Journal 22 (6-7), 521–543.
Almeida, P., 1996. Knowledge sourcing by foreign multinationals: patent
citation analysis in the US semiconductor industry. Strategic Management
Journal 17, 155–165.
Bagchi-Sen, S., Lawton, H., Hall, L., 2004. The US biotechnology
industry: industry dynamics and policy. Environment and Planning C:
Government and Policy 22, 199–216.
Bains, W., 2006. What you give is what you get: investment in European
biotechnology. Journal of Commercial Biotechnology 12 (4), 274–283.
Becker, W., Peters, J., 2000. Technological opportunities, absorptive
capacities, and innovation. No. 195, Discussion Paper Series from
Universitaet Augsburg, Institute for Economics.
Bierly, P., Chakrabarti, A., 1996. Generic knowledge strategies in the US
pharmaceutical industry. Strategic Management Journal 17, 123–135.
Burgelman, R., 1983. A process model of internal corporate venturing in
the diversified major firm. Administrative Science Quarterly 28,
223–244.
Calabrese, T., Baum, J.A.C., Sliverman, B.S., 2000. Canadian biotechnology
start-ups, 1991–1997: the role of incumbents’ patents and strategic
alliances in controlling competition. Social Science Research 29,
503–534.
Cassiman, B., Veugelers, R., 2006. In search of complementarity in
innovation strategy: internal R&D and external knowledge acquisition.
Management Science 52 (1), 68–82.
Chesbrough, H., 2003. Open Innovation: The New Imperative For
Creating And Profiting From Technology. Harvard Business School,
Boston, MA.
Chesbrough, H., 2006. Open Innovation: Researching a New Paradigm.
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Chiaroni, D., Chiesa, V., 2006. Forms of creation of industrial clusters in
biotechnology. Technovation 26, 1064–1076.
Child, J., 2001. Learning through strategic alliances. In: Dierkes, M.,
Antal, A.B., Child, J., Nonaka, I. (Eds.), Handbook of Organisational
Learning and Knowledge. Oxford University Press, Oxford,
pp. 657–680.
Ciborra, C., 1991. Alliances as learning experiments: cooperation,
competition and change in high-tech industries. In: Mytelka, L.K.
(Ed.), Strategic Partnerships and the World Economy. Pinter, London,
pp. 51–77.
Cockburn, L., Henderson, R., 1998. Absorptive capacity, co-authoring
behavior and the organisation of research in drug discovery. Journal of
Industrial Economics 45, 157–183.
Cohen, J., Levinthal, D.A., 1990. Absorptive capacity: a new perspective
on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly 35,
128–152.
Cooke, P., 2001. New economy innovation systems: biotechnology in
Europe and the USA. Industry and Innovation 8 (3), 267–289.
Coombs, J.E., Deeds, D.L., 2000. International alliances as sources of
capital: evidence from the biotechnology industry. Journal of High
Technology Management Research 11 (2), 235–253.
Creed, D.W.E., Miles, R.E., 1996. Trust in organisations: a conceptual
framework linking organisational forms, managerial philosophies, and
the opportunity costs of controls. In: Kramer, R.M., Tyler, T.R.
(Eds.), Trust in Organisations: Frontiers of Theory and Research.
Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, London, New Delhi, pp. 16–38.
Cyert, R.M., March, J.G., 1963. A Behavioral Theory of the Firm.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Day, R.H., 1967. Profits, learning and convergence of satisficing to
marginalism. Quarterly Journal of Economics 81, 302–311.
Deeds, D.L., Hill, C.W.L., 1996. Strategic alliances and the rate of new
product development: an empirical study of entrepreneurial biotechnology
firms. Journal of Business Venturing 11 (1), 41–55.
De Looze, M.A., Coronini, R., Joly, P.B., 2001. A note on recent trends in
Knowledge creation and appropriation through genomics: a scientometric
analysis. International Journal of Biotechnology 3 (1–2), 4–22.
Dowling, M., Helm, R., 2006. Product development success through
cooperation: A study of entrepreneurial firms. Technovation 26,
483–488.
Ernst and Young, 2005. Beyond borders—Global Biotechnology Report
2005.
Ernst and Young, 2006. Beyond borders—Global Biotechnology Report
2006. Back on Track ‘The European Perspective’.
Eurostat, 2005. Structural indicators. Available at: /http://europa.eu.in/
comm/eurostatS.
Eurostat, 2006. Statistics in focus. Available at: /http://ec.europa.eu/
eurostatS.
George, G., Zahra, S.A., Wheatley, K.K., Khan, R., 2001. The effects of
alliance portfolio characteristics and absorptive capacity on performance:
a study of biotechnology firms. Journal of High Technology
Management Research 12, 205–226.
George, G., Zahra, S., Wood, R.D., 2002. The effects of business–university
alliances on innovative output and financial performance: a
study of publicly traded biotechnology companies. Journal of Business
Venturing 17, 577–609.
Gerwin, D., 2004. Coordinating new product development in strategic
alliances. Academy of Management Review 29 (2), 241–257.
Giesecke, S., 2000. The contrasting roles of government in the development
of biotechnology industry in the US and Germany. Research
Policy 29, 205–223.
Gilsing, V., Nooteboom, B., 2006. Exploration and exploitation in
innovation systems: the case of pharmaceutical biotechnology.
Research Policy 35, 1–23.
Glass, A.J., Saggi, K., 1998. International technology transfer and the
technology gap. Journal of Development Economics 55, 369–398.
Gomes-Cassere, B., Hagedoorn, J., Jaffe, A.B., 2006. Do alliances
promote knowledge flows? Journal of Financial Economics 80, 5–33.
Grabher, G., 2001. Locating economic action: projects, networks,
localities, institutions, introductory notes for the workshop. Beyond
the Firm? Spatial and Social Dynamics of Project-Organisation, Bonn,
April.
Griffith, R., Redding, S., Van Reenan, J., 2003. R&D and absorptive
capacity: theory and empirical evidence. Scandinavian Journal of
Economics 105 (1), 99–118.
Hagedoorn, J., 2002. Inter-firm R&D partnerships: an overview of major
trends and patterns since 1960. Research Policy 31 (4), 477–492.
Hall, L., Bagchi-Sen, S., 2007. An analysis of firm-level innovation
strategies in the US biotechnology industry. Technnovation 27, 4–14.
Hamel, G., 1991. Competition for competence and inter-partner learning
within international strategic alliances. Strategic Management Journal
12, 83–103.
Hamel, G., Doz, Y., Prahalad, C.K., 1989. Collaborate with your
competitors and win. Harvard Business Review 67 (1), 133–139.
Hey, J.D., 1982. Search for rules for search. Journal of Economic
Behaviour and Organisation 3, 65–81.
Holmqvist, M., 2003. Intra- and inter-organisational learning processes:
an empirical comparison. Scandinavian Journal of Management 19,
443–466.
Huber, G.P., 1991. Organisational learning: the contributing processes
and literatures. Organisation Science 2 (1), 88–115.
Ingram, P., 2002. Inter-organisational learning. In: Baum, J.A.C. (Ed.),
Companion to Organisations. Blackwell Business, Oxford,
pp. 642–663.
Kahneman, D., Tversky, A., 1979. Prospect theory: an analysis of decision
under risk. Econometrica 47, 263–291.
Kedia, B.L., Bhagat, R.S., 1988. Cultural constrains on transfer of
technology across nations: implications for research in international
and comparative management. Academy of Management Review 13,
559–571.
Keller, W., 1996. Absorptive capacity: on the creation and acquisition of
technology in development. Journal of Development Economics 49,
199–210.
Khanna, T., 1996. Winner-take-all alliances. Harvard Business Working
Paper No.96-033. Kim, L., 1997. The dynamics of Samsung’s technological learning in
semiconductors. California Management Review 39 (3), 86–100.
Kim, L., 1998. Crisis construction and organisational learning: capability
building in catching-up at Hyundai Motor. Organisation Science 9,
506–521.
Kim, C., Song, J., 2007. Creating new technology through alliances: an
empirical investigation of joint patents. Technovation 27, 461–470.
Kodama, F., 1995. Emerging Patterns of Innovation: Sources of Japan’s
Technological Edge. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
Koza, M.P., Lewin, A.Y., 1998. The co-evolution of strategic alliances.
Organisation Science 9, 255–264.
Lane, P.J., Lubatkin, M., 1998. Relative absorptive capacity and interorganisational
learning. Strategic Management Journal 19, 461–477.
Larsson, R., Bengsson, L., Henriksson, K., Sparks, J., 1998. The interorganisational
learning dilemma: collective knowledge development in
strategic alliances. Organisation Science 9 (3), 285–305.
Lavoie, B.F., Sheldon, I.M., 2000. The comparative advantage of real
options: an explanation for the US specialization in biotechnology.
AgBioForum 3 (1), 47–52.
Lemarie´ , S., de Looze, M.A., Mangematin, V., 2000. Strategies of
European SMEs in biotechnology: the role of size, technology and
market. Scientometrics 47 (3), 541–560.
Levinthal, D.A., March, J.G., 1981. A model of adaptive organisational
search. Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organisation 2, 307–333.
Liebeskind, J.P., 1996. Knowledge, strategy, and the theory of the firm.
Strategic Management Journal 17, 93–107.
Love, J.H., Roper, S., 2001. Location and network effects on innovation
success: evidence for UK, German and Irish manufacturing plants.
Research Policy 30, 643–661.
Love, J.H., Roper, S., 2002. Internal versus external R&D: a study of
R&D choice with sample selection. International Journal of the
Economics of Business 9, 239–255.
March, J.G., 1988. Variable risk preference and adaptive aspirations.
Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organisation 9, 5–24.
March, J.G., 1991. Exploration and exploitation in organisational
learning. Organisation Science 2, 71–87.
Mariti, P., Smiley, R.H., 1983. Co-operative agreements and the
organisation of industry. Journal of Industrial Economics 31 (4),
437–451.
Maurer, I., Ebers, M., 2006. Dynamics of social capital and their
performance implications: lessons from biotechnology start-ups.
Administrative Science Quarterly 51, 262–292.
Miller, J., 2004. Early development still driving CRO performance.
Pharmaceutical Technology (2003) 28 (9), 100.
Miner, A.S., Andersson, P., 1999. Industry and population-level learning:
organisational, inter-organisational, and collective learning processes.
In: Miner, A.S., Andersson, P. (Eds.), Advances in Strategic Management,
vol. 16. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 1–30.
Mody, A., 1993. Learning through alliances. Journal of Economic
Behaviour and Organisation 20, 151–170.
Mohan, S.R., Rao, A.R., 2005. Strategy for technology development in
public R&D institutes by partnering with the industry. Technovation
25, 1484–1491.
Mowery, D.C., Oxley, J.E., Silverman, B.S., 1996. Strategic alliances and
inter-firm knowledge transfer. Strategic Management Journal 17, 77–91.
Orsenigo, L., 1989. The Emergence of Biotechnology. St. Martin Press,
New York.
Osborn, R.N., Hagedoorn, J., Denekamp, J.G., Baughn, C.C., Duysters,
G., 1998. Embedded patterns of international alliance formation.
Organisational Studies 19, 617–638.
Owen-Smith, J., Riccaboni, M., Pammolli, F., Powell, W.W., 2002. A
comparison of US and European university–industry relations in the
life sciences. Management Science 48 (1), 24–43.
Parker, J., 2000. Keeping the faith: building investor confidence in the
absence of profits. CMA Management 74 (7), 16–21.
Pitt, L., van der Merwe, B., Berthon, P., Salehi-Sangari, E., Barnes, B.R.,
2006. Swedish BioTech SMEs: the veiled values in online networks.
Technovation 26, 553–560.
Porac, J.F., Wade, J.B., Fischer, H.M., Brown, J., Kanfer, A., Bowker,
G., 2004. Human capital heterogeneity, collaborative relationships,
and publication patterns in a multidisciplinary scientific alliance: a
comparative case study of two scientific teams. Research Policy 33,
661–678.
Powell, W.W., Brantley, P., 1992. Competitive cooperation in biotechnology:
learning through networks? In: Nohria, N., Eccles, R.G. (Eds.),
Networks and Organisations. Structure, Form and Action. Harvard
Business School Press, Boston, MA.
Powell, W., Koput, K., Smith-Doerr, L., 1996. Inter-organisational
collaboration and the locus of innovation: networks of learning in
biotechnology. Administrative Science Quarterly 41, 116–145.
Quintana-Garcia, C., Benavides-Velasco, C.A., 2004. Cooperation,
competition, and innovation capability: a panel data of European
dedicated biotechnology firms. Technovation 24, 927–938.
Radner, R., Rothschild, M., 1975. On the allocation of effort. Journal of
Economic Theory 10, 358–376.
Roper, S., Love, J.H., Du, J., 2007. The limits of open innovation:
openness and (quasi-) markets in the organisation of innovation.
Aston Business School Working Paper 0731.
Rosenberg, N., 1982. Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics.
Cambridge University Press, New York.
Rothaermel, F.T., 2001a. Complementary assets, strategic alliances, and
incumbent’s advantage: an empirical study of industry and firm effects
in the biopharmaceutical industry. Research Policy 30, 1235–1251.
Rothaermel, F.T., 2001b. Incumbent’s advantage through exploiting
complementary assets via inter-firm cooperation. Strategic Management
Journal 22, 687–699.
Rothaermel, F.T., Deeds, D.L., 2004. Exploration and exploitation
alliances in biotechnology: a system of new product development.
Strategic Management Journal 25 (3), 201–221.
Rothwell, R., Dodgson, M., 1991. External linkages and innovation in
small and medium-sized enterprises. R&D Management 21, 125–136.
Scherer, F.M., 1980. Industrial Market Structure and Economic
Performance, second ed. Rand McNally, Chicago.
Schmidt, T., 2005. What determines absorptive capacity. In: Dynamics of
Industry and Innovation: Organisations, Networks and Systems,
Copenhagen, Denmark.
Schoenmakers, W., Duysters, G., 2006. Learning in strategic technology
alliances. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management 18 (2), 245–264.
Sen, F.K., Egelhoff, W.G., 2000. Innovative capabilities of a firm and the
use of technical alliances. IEEE Transaction on Engineering Management
47 (2), 174–183.
Shan, W., 1990. An empirical analysis of organisational strategies by
entrepreneurial high technology firms. Strategic Management Journal
11 (2), 129–139.
Shan, W.,Walker, G., Kogut, B., 1994. Inter-firm cooperation and startup
innovation in the biotechnology industry. Strategic Management
Journal 15 (5), 387–394.
Sharp, M., 1995. The science of nations: European multinationals and
American biotechnology. Paper for The Foundation for Manufacturing
and Industry, Institute of Civil Engineers, Mimpo Science Policy
Research Unit, Sussex University, Brighton, UK.
Simon, H.A., 1955. A behavioural model of rational choice. Quarterly
Journal of Economics 69, 99–118.
Song, X.M., Montoya-Weiss, M.M., Schmidt, J.B., 1997. Antecedents and
consequences of cross-functional cooperation: a comparison of R&D,
manufacturing, and marketing perspectives. Journal of Product
Innovation Management 14, 35–47.
Streiffer, R., 2006. Academic freedom and academic–industry relationships
in biotechnology. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 16 (2),
129–149.
Taplin, R., 2007. Innovation and Business Partnering in Japan. Europe
and the US. Routledge, Abingdon.
Veugelers, R., Cassiman, B., 1999. Make and buy in innovation strategies:
evidence from Belgian manufacturing firms. Research Policy 28, 63–80.
Vuong, Q.H., 1989. Likelihood ratio tests for model selection and nonnested
hypotheses. Econometrica 57 (2), 307–333 Whitehead, G., 2003. Early stage and seed financing for biotechnology
start-ups: a UK perspective. Journal of Commercial Biotechnology 9
(3), 242–248.
Winter, S.G., 1971. Satisficing, selection and the innovating remnant.
Quarterly Journal of Economics 85, 237–261.
Zahra, S.A., George, G., 2002. Absorptive capacity: a review, reconceptualisation,
and extension. Academy of Management Review 27 (2),
185–203.
Zeller, C., 2002. Project teams as means of restructuring research and
development in the pharmaceutical industry. Regional Studies 36,
275–289.
Zollo, M., Reuer, J.J., Singh, H., 2002. Inter-organisational routines and
performance in strategic alliances. Organisation Science 13 (6),
701–713.
Zucker, L.G., Darby, M.R., Armstrong, J., 1998. Geographically localized
knowledge spillovers or markets? Economic Inquiry 36, 65–86.